Heap sort repeatedly removes the maximum from a heap and places it at the end of the array.
How to reason about it
Start by identifying the state the method maintains and the operation that changes it. Then trace one small input by hand. This separates the invariant that makes the method correct from implementation details such as arrays, pointers, counters, or protocol messages.
Worked example
Building a max-heap and extracting its root produces values in descending extraction order and ascending final order.
Write down the state before and after each step. For a larger input, repeat the same transition rather than guessing from the final output. That habit makes edge cases visible and gives you a concrete basis for testing.
Trade-offs and common mistakes
Heap sort guarantees O(n log n) time but is not stable in its usual in-place form.'
Choose this technique when its assumptions match the problem. State those assumptions explicitly, test an empty or boundary input, and compare the cost of the operation you perform most often with the memory or setup cost it introduces.
Takeaway
Heap Sort: Selection with a Heap becomes easier to use once its invariant, input assumptions, and failure cases are clear. A small worked example is a useful first test; measurements and proofs should follow when the system grows.